Compute projections onto the span of a vector or a model space, dot products, and vector lengths in Euclidean space.
project(x, ...)
# S4 method for formula
project(x, u = NULL, data = parent.frame(2), coefficients = TRUE, ...)
# S4 method for numeric
project(x, u = rep(1, length(x)), type = c("vector", "length", "coef"), ...)
# S4 method for matrix
project(x, u, data = parent.frame())
vlength(x, ...)
dot(u, v)a numeric vector (all functions) or a formula (only for project).
Left-hand sides of formulas should be a single quantity
additional arguments
a numeric vector
a data frame.
For project(y ~ x) indicates whether the projection
coefficents should be returned or the projection vector.
one of "length" or "vector" determining the type of the
returned value
a numeric vector
project returns the projection of x onto u
(or its length if u and v are numeric vectors and type == "length")
vlength returns the length of the vector
(i.e., the square root of the sum of the squares of the components)
dot returns the dot product of u and v
project (preferably pronounced "pro-JECT" as in "projection")
does either of two related things:
(1) Given two vectors as arguments, it will project the first onto the
second, returning the point in the subspace of the second that is as
close as possible to the first vector. (2) Given a formula as an argument,
will work very much like lm(), constructing a model matrix from
the right-hand side of the formula and projecting the vector on the
left-hand side onto the subspace of that model matrix.
In (2), rather than
returning the projected vector, project() returns the coefficients
on each of the vectors in the model matrix.
UNLIKE lm(), the intercept vector is NOT included by default. If
you want an intercept vector, include +1 in your formula.
link{project}
x1 <- c(1,0,0); x2 <- c(1,2,3); y1 <- c(3,4,5); y2 <- rnorm(3)
# projection onto the 1 vector gives the mean vector
mean(y2)
#> [1] -0.2657772
project(y2, 1)
#> [1] -0.2657772 -0.2657772 -0.2657772
# return the length of the vector, rather than the vector itself
project(y2, 1, type='length')
#> [1] 0.4603395
project(y1 ~ x1 + x2) -> pr; pr
#> x1 x2
#> 1.230769 1.769231
# recover the projected vector
cbind(x1,x2) %*% pr -> v; v
#> [,1]
#> [1,] 3.000000
#> [2,] 3.538462
#> [3,] 5.307692
project( y1 ~ x1 + x2, coefficients=FALSE )
#> [1] 3.000000 3.538462 5.307692
dot( y1 - v, v ) # left over should be orthogonal to projection, so this should be ~ 0
#> [1] 1.84297e-14
if (require(mosaicData)) {
project(width~length+sex, data=KidsFeet)
}
#> length sexB sexG
#> 0.221025 3.641168 3.408651
vlength(rep(1,4))
#> [1] 2
if (require(mosaicData)) {
m <- lm( length ~ width, data=KidsFeet )
# These should be the same
vlength( m$effects )
vlength( KidsFeet$length)
# So should these
vlength( tail(m$effects, -2) )
sqrt(sum(resid(m)^2))
}
#> [1] 6.233426
v <- c(1,1,1); w <- c(1,2,3)
u <- v / vlength(v) # make a unit vector
# The following should be the same:
project(w,v, type="coef") * v
#> [1] 2 2 2
project(w,v)
#> [1] 2 2 2
# The following are equivalent
abs(dot( w, u ))
#> [1] 3.464102
vlength( project( w, u) )
#> [1] 3.464102
vlength( project( w, v) )
#> [1] 3.464102
project( w, v, type='length' )
#> [1] 3.464102